{"id":1619,"date":"2023-05-25T11:28:50","date_gmt":"2023-05-25T11:28:50","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/trakx.io\/?p=1619"},"modified":"2025-07-30T14:57:50","modified_gmt":"2025-07-30T14:57:50","slug":"central-bank-competency-and-crypto-adoption","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/trakx.io\/pt\/recursos\/pesquisa\/competencia-dos-bancos-centrais-e-adocao-cripto\/","title":{"rendered":"Compet\u00eancia do banco central: Porque \u00e9 que a m\u00e3o vis\u00edvel da pol\u00edtica monet\u00e1ria ir\u00e1 impulsionar a ado\u00e7\u00e3o de criptomoedas"},"content":{"rendered":"<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">por Ryan Shea<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Principais conclus\u00f5es<\/strong><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><em>Os investidores continuam a jogar o jogo de adivinha\u00e7\u00e3o da Reserva Federal - v\u00e3o ou n\u00e3o v\u00e3o abrandar? Aterragem dura versus aterragem suave?<\/em><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><em>Perguntas desconcertantes, mas mais desconcertante ainda \u00e9 saber por que raz\u00e3o temos uma pol\u00edtica monet\u00e1ria conduzida por um comit\u00e9 nas economias capitalistas de mercado livre?<\/em><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><em>Dada a import\u00e2ncia cr\u00edtica das taxas de juro na determina\u00e7\u00e3o do nosso bem-estar econ\u00f3mico, parece sensato deixar as decis\u00f5es de pol\u00edtica monet\u00e1ria para os profissionais.<\/em><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><em>No entanto, isto s\u00f3 \u00e9 verdade se forem competentes para determinar o n\u00edvel adequado da taxa de juro para a economia num determinado momento.<\/em><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><em>Uma forma de testar esta compet\u00eancia \u00e9 comparar as suas projec\u00e7\u00f5es de infla\u00e7\u00e3o com a infla\u00e7\u00e3o verificada. A julgar por esta base, n\u00e3o se t\u00eam sa\u00eddo muito bem.<\/em><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><em>Isto deve-se ao facto de a intera\u00e7\u00e3o entre as taxas de juro e a infla\u00e7\u00e3o n\u00e3o ser t\u00e3o bem compreendida como muitos pensam.<\/em><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><em>Se os bancos centrais n\u00e3o conseguem prever com exatid\u00e3o a infla\u00e7\u00e3o, \u00e9 natural que tamb\u00e9m n\u00e3o sejam muito competentes na defini\u00e7\u00e3o da pol\u00edtica monet\u00e1ria.<\/em><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><em>\u00c0 medida que mais e mais pessoas chegam a esta conclus\u00e3o, isso dar\u00e1 um impulso adicional \u00e0 ado\u00e7\u00e3o de criptomoedas.<\/em><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><em>Afinal, gostarias de estar num avi\u00e3o pilotado por algu\u00e9m que n\u00e3o sabe para que servem todos os bot\u00f5es e alavancas? N\u00e3o \u2013 eu tamb\u00e9m n\u00e3o.<\/em><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Depois de, em 2022, a Reserva Federal ter feito um trav\u00e3o de m\u00e3o na pol\u00edtica monet\u00e1ria para acompanhar o aumento da infla\u00e7\u00e3o, o mercado obrigacionista est\u00e1 a antecipar outro trav\u00e3o de m\u00e3o (desta vez dovish) para lidar com a tens\u00e3o no sistema banc\u00e1rio dos EUA<a href=\"#sdfootnote1sym\" id=\"sdfootnote1anc\"><sup>1<\/sup><\/a>que j\u00e1 resultou em tr\u00eas fal\u00eancias banc\u00e1rias de dimens\u00e3o consider\u00e1vel e, a acreditar nas sondagens, est\u00e1 a provocar uma redu\u00e7\u00e3o do cr\u00e9dito de uma magnitude que normalmente s\u00f3 se verifica antes das recess\u00f5es. No entanto, a avaliar pelos seus \u00faltimos coment\u00e1rios, os respons\u00e1veis da Fed n\u00e3o est\u00e3o a ter nada disso. Na sua opini\u00e3o, a infla\u00e7\u00e3o est\u00e1 muito acima do objetivo - como tem sido consistentemente desde h\u00e1 dois anos - e com a taxa de desemprego em m\u00ednimos de v\u00e1rias d\u00e9cadas, a taxa dos fundos tem de ser mantida elevada para garantir que a infla\u00e7\u00e3o converge de volta para o seu objetivo de infla\u00e7\u00e3o 2%.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Tal como referido no meu <a href=\"https:\/\/trakx.io\/pt\/recursos\/pesquisa\/impacto-cripto\/\" target=\"_blank\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/trakx.io\/crypto-impact\/\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">\u00faltima nota de investiga\u00e7\u00e3o<\/a> <strong> <\/strong>A minha opini\u00e3o \u00e9 que os investidores em obriga\u00e7\u00f5es est\u00e3o provavelmente corretos ao considerarem que o risco de uma aterragem for\u00e7ada est\u00e1 a aumentar, mas est\u00e3o a ser demasiado optimistas ao avaliarem uma r\u00e1pida reviravolta da Reserva Federal, porque o obst\u00e1culo \u00e0 flexibiliza\u00e7\u00e3o \u00e9 muito maior do que aquele a que se habituaram pelas raz\u00f5es acima referidas. A conclus\u00e3o impl\u00edcita, mas inevit\u00e1vel, \u00e9 que a Fed est\u00e1 \u00e0 beira de cometer um erro de pol\u00edtica. Terei raz\u00e3o? O mercado obrigacionista tem raz\u00e3o? A Fed tem raz\u00e3o? Qual \u00e9 o n\u00edvel adequado para as taxas de juro de curto prazo dos EUA?<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Perguntas, perguntas, perguntas.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Isso levou-me a pensar no papel desempenhado pelos bancos centrais na economia moderna. Em muitos aspectos, s\u00e3o entidades excecionalmente estranhas. Passo a explicar.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>M\u00e3os invis\u00edveis<\/strong><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">A maior parte das pessoas que trabalham em finan\u00e7as est\u00e3o habituadas ao conceito de m\u00e3o invis\u00edvel, uma hip\u00f3tese concebida pelo fil\u00f3sofo moral Adam Smith (n\u00e3o existiam economistas na altura em que escreveu a Teoria dos Sentimentos Morais<a href=\"#sdfootnote2sym\" id=\"sdfootnote2anc\"><sup>2<\/sup><\/a>). A ideia, que tem vindo a ser alargada desde que foi delineada pela primeira vez, \u00e9 que os indiv\u00edduos que agem no seu pr\u00f3prio interesse econ\u00f3mico obt\u00eam o melhor resultado para a sociedade sem que o pretendam ou saibam, ou seja, \u00e9 uma consequ\u00eancia positiva n\u00e3o intencional.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Embora, ao longo dos anos, os economistas tenham identificado v\u00e1rios casos de falhas do mercado, como monop\u00f3lios, externalidades negativas, desigualdade, etc., este continua a ser o argumento fundamental para defender que o mercado livre \u00e9 o mecanismo \u00f3timo para \"<em>distribuir recursos escassos face a desejos e necessidades ilimitados<\/em>\".<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Num contexto social, a m\u00e3o invis\u00edvel \u00e9 apenas uma outra forma de dizer que \"<em>mais vale ter muitas cabe\u00e7as do que uma<\/em>\". \u00c9 claro que os indiv\u00edduos com interesses pr\u00f3prios podem cometer erros e cometem-nos, mas o pressuposto \u00e9 que, quando agregados, estes pequenos erros (relativamente \u00e0 dimens\u00e3o da economia) tendem a anular-se mutuamente, resultando na revela\u00e7\u00e3o m\u00e1gica da solu\u00e7\u00e3o \u00f3ptima na aus\u00eancia de qualquer coordena\u00e7\u00e3o organizada ou expl\u00edcita. \u00c9 certo que os mercados livres s\u00e3o considerados superiores ao modelo alternativo centralizado em que as decis\u00f5es s\u00e3o tomadas por comit\u00e9s. N\u00e3o \u00e9 por isso que o capitalismo teve sucesso onde o comunismo falhou?<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">E, no entanto, nas economias capitalistas de mercado livre, como \u00e9 que definimos a pol\u00edtica monet\u00e1ria? Por comit\u00e9. Um grupo selecionado de pessoas \u00e9 contratado para trabalhar no banco central e \u00e9-lhes confiada a tarefa de determinar qual deve ser o pre\u00e7o do dinheiro (a taxa de juro). N\u00e3o vos parece estranho? A mim parece-me.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Bom senso\u2026<\/strong><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Penso que todos concordamos que o n\u00edvel das taxas de juro numa economia tem um impacto profundo em todos n\u00f3s. Influi no crescimento econ\u00f3mico, na infla\u00e7\u00e3o, no desemprego, no custo do endividamento p\u00fablico, no custo do endividamento das fam\u00edlias (incluindo as hipotecas \u2013 o bem mais caro que a maioria das pessoas provavelmente vir\u00e1 a adquirir), no n\u00edvel dos pre\u00e7os dos ativos, na solidez das taxas de c\u00e2mbio\u2026 a lista continua, e continua, e continua. N\u00e3o estamos a falar de algo sem import\u00e2ncia. Tal como n\u00e3o confiar\u00edamos num grupo de cidad\u00e3os sem forma\u00e7\u00e3o para gerir um reator nuclear ou pilotar um avi\u00e3o, parece sensato \u2014 se n\u00e3o mesmo absolutamente prudente, dada a sua import\u00e2ncia para o nosso bem-estar econ\u00f3mico \u2014 deixar as decis\u00f5es de pol\u00edtica monet\u00e1ria a cargo dos profissionais.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\u00c9 claro que isto s\u00f3 \u00e9 v\u00e1lido se os banqueiros centrais forem competentes para determinar qual \u00e9 o n\u00edvel adequado da taxa de juro para a economia num determinado momento. Os curr\u00edculos das pessoas nomeadas para os comit\u00e9s de pol\u00edtica monet\u00e1ria podem sugerir compet\u00eancia, mas a \u00fanica forma cred\u00edvel de avaliar a compet\u00eancia \u00e9 atrav\u00e9s do seu historial.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Desde que os bancos centrais passaram a ser operacionalmente independentes \u2014 um processo que teve in\u00edcio em meados da d\u00e9cada de 1990 \u2014, a maioria adotou uma meta de infla\u00e7\u00e3o expl\u00edcita (normalmente 2%), o que constitui um teste decisivo para avaliar objetivamente a sua compet\u00eancia.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Com a not\u00e1vel exce\u00e7\u00e3o do Jap\u00e3o, cuja economia tem sido assolada por for\u00e7as deflacionistas h\u00e1 d\u00e9cadas, desde a viragem do s\u00e9culo que as taxas de infla\u00e7\u00e3o nas principais economias desenvolvidas t\u00eam estado, em geral, em linha com os seus mandatos de estabilidade dos pre\u00e7os. (O gr\u00e1fico abaixo mostra o IPC de base, que exclui as componentes mais vol\u00e1teis dos produtos alimentares e da energia). Isto foi, naturalmente, at\u00e9 2022, altura em que as rodas se soltaram e a infla\u00e7\u00e3o atingiu o seu n\u00edvel mais elevado em d\u00e9cadas.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-text-align-center\"><strong>Infla\u00e7\u00e3o Core CPI - Principais Economias<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-image\">\n<figure class=\"aligncenter size-full\"><img decoding=\"async\" width=\"862\" height=\"441\" src=\"https:\/\/trakx.io\/wp-content\/uploads\/vh_1.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1626\" srcset=\"https:\/\/trakx.io\/wp-content\/uploads\/vh_1.jpg 862w, https:\/\/trakx.io\/wp-content\/uploads\/vh_1-768x393.jpg 768w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 862px) 100vw, 862px\" \/><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n\n\n<p class=\"has-text-align-center wp-block-paragraph\">Fonte: OCDE<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>\u2026 Ou sorte?<\/strong><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\u00c9 evidente que a sorte dos banqueiros centrais mudou, mas trata-se de um caso em que banqueiros centrais competentes se tornaram azarados, ou de banqueiros centrais menos competentes que tiveram sorte anteriormente (no sentido em que as \u00faltimas duas d\u00e9cadas foram um cen\u00e1rio macroecon\u00f3mico benigno, de baixa volatilidade, por raz\u00f5es em grande parte n\u00e3o relacionadas com a pol\u00edtica monet\u00e1ria)? \u00c9 uma diferen\u00e7a muito importante.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Para responder a esta quest\u00e3o, \u00e9 necess\u00e1rio mais do que simplesmente verificar em que medida a infla\u00e7\u00e3o se desviou da sua taxa objetivo. A infla\u00e7\u00e3o pode ser afetada por choques de curto prazo, dos quais tivemos alguns nos \u00faltimos anos - nomeadamente a pandemia de Covid e a invas\u00e3o russa da Ucr\u00e2nia. Esmagar o crescimento econ\u00f3mico assim que a infla\u00e7\u00e3o come\u00e7a a ultrapassar os limites n\u00e3o \u00e9 provavelmente a forma mais sensata de conduzir a pol\u00edtica monet\u00e1ria. Por conseguinte, uma melhor forma de avaliar a compet\u00eancia dos banqueiros centrais consiste em analisar o grau de exatid\u00e3o das suas previs\u00f5es de infla\u00e7\u00e3o nos \u00faltimos dois anos, uma vez que tal dever\u00e1 ter em conta a sua toler\u00e2ncia em rela\u00e7\u00e3o a excessos.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Dois bancos centrais que elaboram previs\u00f5es de infla\u00e7\u00e3o bastante pormenorizadas s\u00e3o o BCE e o BoE, por isso vejamos como se comportaram no passado recente - ver gr\u00e1ficos abaixo.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-text-align-center\"><strong>Previs\u00f5es de infla\u00e7\u00e3o do BCE vs. resultados<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-image\">\n<figure class=\"aligncenter size-full\"><img decoding=\"async\" width=\"693\" height=\"371\" src=\"https:\/\/trakx.io\/wp-content\/uploads\/vh_2.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1627\"><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n\n\n<p class=\"has-text-align-center wp-block-paragraph\">Fonte: Financial Times<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-text-align-center\"><strong>Previs\u00f5es de infla\u00e7\u00e3o do BoE vs. resultados<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-image\">\n<figure class=\"aligncenter size-full\"><img decoding=\"async\" width=\"1409\" height=\"799\" src=\"https:\/\/trakx.io\/wp-content\/uploads\/vh_3.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1628\" srcset=\"https:\/\/trakx.io\/wp-content\/uploads\/vh_3.jpg 1409w, https:\/\/trakx.io\/wp-content\/uploads\/vh_3-768x436.jpg 768w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1409px) 100vw, 1409px\" \/><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n\n\n<p class=\"has-text-align-center wp-block-paragraph\">Fonte: Twitter (@edconwaysky)<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">O que \u00e9 facilmente vis\u00edvel a partir destes gr\u00e1ficos \u00e9 que ambos os bancos centrais subestimaram de forma significativa e consistente a extens\u00e3o do aumento das taxas de infla\u00e7\u00e3o. Al\u00e9m disso, estes dois bancos centrais n\u00e3o estavam sozinhos. Quase todos os bancos centrais subestimaram de forma consistente o aumento das taxas de infla\u00e7\u00e3o.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\u00c9 tentador dar aos banqueiros centrais o benef\u00edcio da d\u00favida, uma vez que estavam a lidar com um conjunto de circunst\u00e2ncias muito invulgar e dif\u00edcil. No entanto, esta aparente incapacidade de prever a infla\u00e7\u00e3o n\u00e3o \u00e9 uma carater\u00edstica nova. Veja-se o historial das previs\u00f5es de infla\u00e7\u00e3o do BCE desde 2012 - ver gr\u00e1fico abaixo. Embora a magnitude dos erros seja relativamente menor (reflexo de um cen\u00e1rio macroecon\u00f3mico mais benigno), eles s\u00e3o, no entanto, consistentemente tendenciosos, embora na dire\u00e7\u00e3o oposta.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-text-align-center\"><strong>Previs\u00f5es de infla\u00e7\u00e3o do BCE vs. resultados<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-image\">\n<figure class=\"aligncenter size-full\"><img decoding=\"async\" width=\"653\" height=\"405\" src=\"https:\/\/trakx.io\/wp-content\/uploads\/vh_4.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1629\"><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n\n\n<p class=\"has-text-align-center wp-block-paragraph\">Fonte: Twitter<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">A julgar por estes gr\u00e1ficos, ainda bem que as pessoas que t\u00eam assento nos comit\u00e9s de pol\u00edtica monet\u00e1ria dos bancos centrais n\u00e3o trabalham nas companhias a\u00e9reas ou no sector da energia nuclear.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Err\u00e2ncia do tolo<\/strong><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Curiosamente, n\u00e3o s\u00e3o apenas os bancos centrais que parecem ser incapazes de prever a infla\u00e7\u00e3o. O gr\u00e1fico abaixo mostra a evolu\u00e7\u00e3o das previs\u00f5es consensuais do sector privado nos EUA em compara\u00e7\u00e3o com os resultados reais. Parece-lhe familiar? Mesmo grandes grupos de indiv\u00edduos independentes - uma aproxima\u00e7\u00e3o mais pr\u00f3xima da m\u00e3o invis\u00edvel em termos de previs\u00f5es macroecon\u00f3micas - subestimaram consistentemente o salto nas taxas de infla\u00e7\u00e3o.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-text-align-center\"><strong>Previs\u00f5es do Consenso dos EUA vs. Resultados<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-image\">\n<figure class=\"aligncenter size-full\"><img decoding=\"async\" width=\"1327\" height=\"749\" src=\"https:\/\/trakx.io\/wp-content\/uploads\/vh_5.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1630\" srcset=\"https:\/\/trakx.io\/wp-content\/uploads\/vh_5.jpg 1327w, https:\/\/trakx.io\/wp-content\/uploads\/vh_5-768x433.jpg 768w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1327px) 100vw, 1327px\" \/><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n\n\n<p class=\"has-text-align-left wp-block-paragraph\">Fonte: (N\u00e3o me lembro bem \u2013 encontrei isto no Google \u2013 se reconhecerem a fonte, por favor avisem-me e eu corrigirei).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">A previs\u00e3o da infla\u00e7\u00e3o parece ser uma tarefa imposs\u00edvel. Para os banqueiros centrais, isto representa um problema bastante s\u00e9rio por uma raz\u00e3o subtil e pouco apreciada. Praticamente todos os comentadores financeiros descrevem os bancos centrais como tendo objectivos de infla\u00e7\u00e3o, mas, na realidade, n\u00e3o \u00e9 isso que acontece. Devido aos longos desfasamentos entre o impacto da pol\u00edtica monet\u00e1ria numa economia - e, consequentemente, na infla\u00e7\u00e3o - o que eles s\u00e3o, na realidade, s\u00e3o objectivos de previs\u00e3o da infla\u00e7\u00e3o. Ou seja, fixam o n\u00edvel das taxas de juro de forma a que as suas previs\u00f5es de infla\u00e7\u00e3o atinjam o objetivo 2% no seu horizonte temporal de previs\u00e3o (normalmente dois anos). Se n\u00e3o conseguem prever com exatid\u00e3o a infla\u00e7\u00e3o, \u00e9 natural que tamb\u00e9m n\u00e3o sejam muito competentes na defini\u00e7\u00e3o da pol\u00edtica monet\u00e1ria.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Fundamentos inst\u00e1veis<\/strong><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Ent\u00e3o, porque \u00e9 que os bancos centrais e os participantes nos mercados financeiros s\u00e3o maus a prever a infla\u00e7\u00e3o? Na minha opini\u00e3o, isso deve-se ao facto de a base te\u00f3rica em que assentam as suas previs\u00f5es ser - permitam-me que seja generoso - incompleta.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">O modelo predominante que os macroeconomistas \u2014 certamente os que trabalham nos bancos centrais \u2014 utilizam para estimar o efeito das taxas de juro sobre a infla\u00e7\u00e3o baseia-se na procura agregada<a href=\"#sdfootnote3sym\" id=\"sdfootnote3anc\"><sup>3<\/sup><\/a>. De acordo com este quadro, taxas de juro mais elevadas obrigam os consumidores a utilizar uma maior propor\u00e7\u00e3o do seu rendimento no servi\u00e7o da d\u00edvida, o que significa que t\u00eam menos rendimento dispon\u00edvel para gastar. Dado que o consumo constitui 70% da economia, isto traduz-se diretamente num crescimento econ\u00f3mico mais fraco. Al\u00e9m disso, perante uma menor procura, as empresas (eventualmente<a href=\"#sdfootnote4sym\" id=\"sdfootnote4anc\"><sup>4<\/sup><\/a>) come\u00e7am a perder m\u00e3o de obra, fazendo subir a taxa de desemprego, o que contribui para minar ainda mais os rendimentos das fam\u00edlias e, consequentemente, o consumo futuro. Como todos os estudantes que j\u00e1 frequentaram uma aula de economia sabem, uma menor procura resulta em pre\u00e7os mais baixos, pelo que o aumento das taxas de juro faz baixar a taxa de infla\u00e7\u00e3o.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">N\u00e3o obstante o apelo intuitivo desta l\u00f3gica, as provas que a sustentam s\u00e3o algo fragment\u00e1rias. Na sua base est\u00e1 a Curva de Phillips, que pressup\u00f5e uma rela\u00e7\u00e3o inversa entre infla\u00e7\u00e3o e desemprego. Durante a d\u00e9cada de 1970, esta presum\u00edvel rela\u00e7\u00e3o negativa explodiu quando o desemprego e a infla\u00e7\u00e3o subiram simultaneamente. A teoria foi remendada atrav\u00e9s da incorpora\u00e7\u00e3o de curvas de Phillips de curto prazo que dependiam do n\u00edvel e da volatilidade das expectativas de infla\u00e7\u00e3o.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">No entanto, no per\u00edodo p\u00f3s-Grande Recess\u00e3o, a rela\u00e7\u00e3o voltou a quebrar-se. Num <a href=\"https:\/\/johnhcochrane.blogspot.com\/2022\/06\/the-phillips-curve.html\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/johnhcochrane.blogspot.com\/2022\/06\/the-phillips-curve.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">passado do blogue<\/a> No ano passado, John Cochrane - um economista te\u00f3rico que defende a teoria fiscal do n\u00edvel de pre\u00e7os que referi em v\u00e1rias notas de investiga\u00e7\u00e3o anteriores - salientou que, entre 2007 e 2019, a curva de Phillips se tornou plana, para depois se tornar quase vertical durante a pandemia. Esta instabilidade torna a curva de Phillips t\u00e3o \u00fatil como um bule de chocolate quando se trata de a utilizar como base para definir o n\u00edvel adequado das taxas de juro.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Num artigo mais recente<a href=\"https:\/\/johnhcochrane.blogspot.com\/2023\/04\/how-do-interest-rates-lower-inflation.html\" target=\"_blank\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/johnhcochrane.blogspot.com\/2023\/04\/how-do-interest-rates-lower-inflation.html\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\"> publica\u00e7\u00e3o no blogue<\/a> O John discute mais formalmente a rela\u00e7\u00e3o entre as taxas de juro e a infla\u00e7\u00e3o e, depois de passar por algumas equa\u00e7\u00f5es gregas, conclui:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<blockquote class=\"wp-block-quote is-layout-flow wp-block-quote-is-layout-flow\">\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\"<em>A afirma\u00e7\u00e3o de que dispomos de modelos simples, f\u00e1ceis de compreender e bem conhecidos, que captam a intui\u00e7\u00e3o padr\u00e3o \u2014 taxas nominais mais elevadas com pre\u00e7os r\u00edgidos significam taxas reais mais elevadas, o que leva a uma menor produ\u00e7\u00e3o e a uma infla\u00e7\u00e3o mais baixa \u2014 simplesmente n\u00e3o \u00e9 verdadeira. O modelo padr\u00e3o comporta-se de forma muito diferente daquilo que se pensa. \u00c9 espantoso como, ap\u00f3s 30 anos a brincar com estas equa\u00e7\u00f5es simples, a intui\u00e7\u00e3o verbal e as equa\u00e7\u00f5es continuam t\u00e3o distantes uma da outra.<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><em>Neste modelo novo-keynesiano muito normalizado, taxas de juro mais elevadas sem uma contra\u00e7\u00e3o fiscal concomitante aumentam a infla\u00e7\u00e3o, imediata e persistentemente\".<\/em><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Taxas de juro mais elevadas e infla\u00e7\u00e3o mais elevada? QUE LOUCURA. Isso n\u00e3o estava previsto no plano.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Macro Relatividade<\/strong><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Na minha opini\u00e3o, uma defici\u00eancia cr\u00edtica na forma como os macroeconomistas pensam sobre a rela\u00e7\u00e3o entre a infla\u00e7\u00e3o e as taxas de juro, que compromete a compet\u00eancia dos bancos centrais em mat\u00e9ria de defini\u00e7\u00e3o de pol\u00edticas, \u00e9 o facto de n\u00e3o considerarem plenamente o impacto que as taxas de juro mais elevadas t\u00eam no lado da oferta da economia.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Taxas de juro mais elevadas aumentam o custo do capital para as empresas, reduzindo os seus incentivos ao investimento em nova produ\u00e7\u00e3o ou capacidade econ\u00f3mica (oferta agregada em termos econ\u00f3micos). Mais uma vez, como todos os estudantes que j\u00e1 frequentaram uma aula de economia sabem, uma menor oferta resulta em pre\u00e7os mais elevados, pelo que o aumento das taxas de juro faz subir a taxa de infla\u00e7\u00e3o!<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Analisar apenas o impacto das taxas de juro na procura agregada \u00e9 insuficiente. \u00c9 o impacto relativo que as altera\u00e7\u00f5es das taxas de juro t\u00eam sobre a procura agregada e a oferta agregada na economia que determina a evolu\u00e7\u00e3o da infla\u00e7\u00e3o. Se o efeito de amortecimento do aumento das taxas de juro sobre a procura agregada for maior do que o efeito de amortecimento sobre a oferta agregada, as taxas de infla\u00e7\u00e3o diminuir\u00e3o; se for menor, a infla\u00e7\u00e3o aumentar\u00e1. A rela\u00e7\u00e3o entre as taxas de juro e a infla\u00e7\u00e3o \u00e9 muito mais complexa do que geralmente nos fazem crer.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">A minha preocupa\u00e7\u00e3o, na atual conjuntura, \u00e9 que, ap\u00f3s um per\u00edodo t\u00e3o prolongado de taxas de juro nominais muito baixas, muitas empresas t\u00eam modelos de neg\u00f3cio que se tornaram fortemente dependentes de financiamento barato e, face a taxas de juro mais elevadas e sustentadas, muitas podem ir \u00e0 fal\u00eancia (n\u00e3o muito diferente dos tr\u00eas bancos americanos que j\u00e1 faliram este ano). Se estiver correto, isso significa que o efeito de amortecimento da oferta agregada decorrente de taxas de juro mais elevadas seria consider\u00e1vel, o que significa que a infla\u00e7\u00e3o poderia muito facilmente revelar-se muito mais duradoura do que a que se verifica apenas com o efeito da procura agregada.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>E depois?<\/strong><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Por muito interessante que tudo isto seja, o que \u00e9 que tem a ver com as criptomoedas, que \u00e9 o ponto central destas notas de investiga\u00e7\u00e3o? Bastante, na verdade.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Uma das maiores cr\u00edticas dos economistas tradicionais \u00e0s criptomoedas, especificamente \u00e0s criptomoedas de oferta limitada ou finita como a Bitcoin, \u00e9 que a sua rigidez de oferta as torna inadequadas como forma de dinheiro. O argumento baseia-se na cren\u00e7a de que os bancos centrais exigem a flexibilidade que adv\u00e9m de ter moeda fiduci\u00e1ria de emiss\u00e3o livre para implementar pol\u00edticas antic\u00edclicas e suavizar os solavancos econ\u00f3micos na estrada que inevitavelmente ocorrem porque a economia global \u00e9 um sistema altamente din\u00e2mico, n\u00e3o linear, quase ca\u00f3tico (no sentido cient\u00edfico)<a href=\"#sdfootnote5sym\" id=\"sdfootnote5anc\"><sup>5<\/sup><\/a>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">N\u00e3o teria qualquer problema com esta conclus\u00e3o se os bancos centrais fossem capazes de demonstrar uma s\u00f3lida compreens\u00e3o da forma como as suas ac\u00e7\u00f5es de pol\u00edtica monet\u00e1ria afectam a economia. Mas, a julgar pelo seu historial de previs\u00f5es de infla\u00e7\u00e3o, parece que nem sequer sabem o b\u00e1sico. No post do blogue acima mencionado (ver nota de rodap\u00e9 3), George Copper conclui com a seguinte declara\u00e7\u00e3o...<\/p>\n\n\n\n<blockquote class=\"wp-block-quote is-layout-flow wp-block-quote-is-layout-flow\">\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\"<em>Uma experi\u00eancia interessante seria fixar as taxas de juro de base dos bancos centrais em, digamos, 3% e depois enviar os nossos comit\u00e9s de pol\u00edtica monet\u00e1ria para a beira-mar durante uma d\u00e9cada ou duas. A economia pode ter um melhor desempenho sem uma pol\u00edtica monet\u00e1ria ativa\".<\/em><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Eu iria um passo mais longe e diria que, nesse caso, porque n\u00e3o acabar com a moeda fiduci\u00e1ria por completo. Antes do lan\u00e7amento do Bitcoin, seria imposs\u00edvel ter dinheiro que n\u00e3o fosse emitido e controlado por uma entidade centralizada, como um banco central, por causa do problema de gastos duplos. Esse requisito foi agora obliterado. A tecnologia Blockchain, que no caso do Bitcoin foi testada em batalha por mais de 14 anos, permite-nos emitir dinheiro descentralizado numa forma digital (a forma em que a grande maioria dos pagamentos \u00e9 feita).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Os adeptos do sistema fiduci\u00e1rio argumentam que a exist\u00eancia de uma oferta monet\u00e1ria fixa\/limitada resultar\u00e1 numa maior volatilidade econ\u00f3mica (booms e busts) e que \u00e9 tamb\u00e9m quase certamente deflacion\u00e1ria, o que, segundo eles, prejudicar\u00e1 as perspectivas de crescimento econ\u00f3mico a longo prazo.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Quanto ao primeiro ponto, concordo: restringir a capacidade dos bancos centrais de implementar pol\u00edticas antic\u00edclicas provavelmente aumentaria os ciclos de expans\u00e3o e recess\u00e3o a curto prazo, em compara\u00e7\u00e3o com o que temos vivido nas \u00faltimas d\u00e9cadas. Digo \u00abprovavelmente\u00bb porque, tal como referido acima, n\u00f3s \u2014 e, ao dizer \u00abn\u00f3s\u00bb, incluo os respons\u00e1veis dos bancos centrais \u2014 ainda n\u00e3o parecemos compreender bem como a infla\u00e7\u00e3o (o principal foco de aten\u00e7\u00e3o dos respons\u00e1veis dos bancos centrais) e as taxas de juro (a principal ferramenta de pol\u00edtica monet\u00e1ria dos respons\u00e1veis dos bancos centrais) interagem, pelo que est\u00e1 longe de ser \u00f3bvio que tal venha a acontecer.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Al\u00e9m disso, quando se d\u00e1 um passo atr\u00e1s e se analisam as tend\u00eancias macroecon\u00f3micas a longo prazo, est\u00e1 longe de ser \u00f3bvio que os actuais quadros or\u00e7amental e monet\u00e1rio tenham proporcionado estabilidade. Sim, o crescimento real do PIB e as taxas de infla\u00e7\u00e3o t\u00eam sido relativamente est\u00e1veis nas \u00faltimas d\u00e9cadas, mas veja-se o que foi necess\u00e1rio para garantir esse resultado. Os r\u00e1cios da d\u00edvida p\u00fablica em rela\u00e7\u00e3o ao PIB subiram para n\u00edveis quase recorde em tempo de paz e os bancos centrais t\u00eam balan\u00e7os que s\u00e3o muito maiores do que as normas hist\u00f3ricas (excedendo a produ\u00e7\u00e3o econ\u00f3mica anual em <a href=\"https:\/\/trakx.io\/pt\/recursos\/pesquisa\/alta-agressiva-dos-juros-fed\/\" target=\"_blank\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/trakx.io\/fed-aggressive-rate-hiking\/\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">alguns casos<\/a> ). Ser\u00e1 que podemos ter a certeza de que n\u00e3o estamos simplesmente a acumular uma volatilidade muito maior a longo prazo?<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Talvez seja melhor ter uma frequ\u00eancia mais elevada, mas de menor magnitude, de ciclos de expans\u00e3o e recess\u00e3o que atenuem o risco de acumula\u00e7\u00e3o de desequil\u00edbrios macroecon\u00f3micos maiores cuja corre\u00e7\u00e3o inevit\u00e1vel (a gravidade econ\u00f3mica n\u00e3o pode ser desafiada indefinidamente) poderia ter consequ\u00eancias potencialmente desastrosas. Para aqueles que continuam a discordar, direi apenas isto: voltem a falar comigo quando os r\u00e1cios d\u00edvida\/PIB voltarem aos n\u00edveis que os europeus consideraram suficientemente prudentes para incluir nos crit\u00e9rios de Maastricht<a href=\"#sdfootnote6sym\" id=\"sdfootnote6anc\"><sup>6<\/sup><\/a> e depois podemos falar.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Relativamente \u00e0 quest\u00e3o da defla\u00e7\u00e3o, tamb\u00e9m concordo. A exist\u00eancia de uma oferta monet\u00e1ria finita exerceria uma press\u00e3o descendente sobre os pre\u00e7os, porque o aumento da produtividade conduziria a um aumento da oferta de bens em rela\u00e7\u00e3o \u00e0 oferta de moeda, mas como \u00e9 que isso \u00e9 mau? A descida dos pre\u00e7os significa simplesmente um aumento do n\u00edvel de vida real. Para mim, isso parece-me uma coisa boa.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">S\u00f3 seria censur\u00e1vel se a descida constante dos pre\u00e7os levasse as pessoas a continuar a adiar as despesas na expetativa de pre\u00e7os ainda mais baixos no futuro, conduzindo a uma espiral deflacionista. J\u00e1 me deparei com este argumento em muitas ocasi\u00f5es e a minha resposta \u00e9 sempre a seguinte: Comprou um computador port\u00e1til ou praticamente qualquer produto tecnol\u00f3gico nos \u00faltimos cinco anos? Claro que sim, e isto apesar de os seus pre\u00e7os terem estado numa trajet\u00f3ria descendente consistente durante d\u00e9cadas. Como referi anteriormente, as pessoas t\u00eam <em>desejos e necessidades ilimitados<\/em> e este \u00edmpeto revelar-se-\u00e1 sempre a for\u00e7a dominante.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">A defla\u00e7\u00e3o significaria tamb\u00e9m, naturalmente, que, devido ao facto de as taxas de juro n\u00e3o poderem ser negativas, o valor real da d\u00edvida aumentaria. Mas, mais uma vez, ser\u00e1 isso assim t\u00e3o mau? Se as pessoas soubessem que n\u00e3o h\u00e1 qualquer perspetiva de receberem um cart\u00e3o de sa\u00edda da pris\u00e3o sob a forma de taxas de juro reais negativas, talvez fossem mais cautelosas em rela\u00e7\u00e3o a pedir dinheiro emprestado e n\u00e3o cheg\u00e1ssemos a situa\u00e7\u00f5es como a atual, em que os n\u00edveis de endividamento s\u00e3o muito elevados, mas sem um plano claro sobre a forma como podem ser corrigidos (na aus\u00eancia, claro, de os bancos centrais serem obrigados a carregar no bot\u00e3o da impressora).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Coexist\u00eancia<\/strong><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Ser\u00e1 que alguma vez chegaremos a ver um mundo em que o dinheiro seja libertado das m\u00e3os dos bancos centrais? Provavelmente n\u00e3o. O controlo da oferta de moeda \u00e9 uma ferramenta muito poderosa e os governos, que s\u00e3o os chefes m\u00e1ximos dos bancos centrais, por muito independentes que gostem de pensar que s\u00e3o, gostam e anseiam pelo poder mais do que qualquer outra coisa. Mas a beleza das criptomoedas \u00e9 que eles n\u00e3o podem impedir que voc\u00ea ou qualquer outra pessoa as possua e as utilize para efetuar pagamentos, se assim o desejar. Isso est\u00e1 para al\u00e9m do seu mandato. O mais prov\u00e1vel \u00e9 que as duas coisas coexistam. Quando olho para a forma como a dimens\u00e3o dos balan\u00e7os dos governos e dos bancos centrais se expandiu nas \u00faltimas d\u00e9cadas, sei qual dos dois satisfar\u00e1 melhor o pr\u00e9-requisito de reserva de valor para o dinheiro e certamente n\u00e3o \u00e9 a moeda fiduci\u00e1ria.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">At\u00e9 \u00e0 pr\u00f3xima vez.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Ryan Shea, economista de criptomoedas<\/p>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a id=\"sdfootnote1sym\" href=\"#sdfootnote1anc\">1<\/a>No final do ano, os futuros das taxas de juro dos EUA est\u00e3o a prever uma flexibiliza\u00e7\u00e3o de 50 pontos base - ver: https:\/\/www.cmegroup.com\/markets\/interest-rates\/cme-fedwatch-tool.html<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote2anc\" id=\"sdfootnote2sym\">2<\/a>Adam Smith \u00e9 mais conhecido pelo seu livro A Riqueza das Na\u00e7\u00f5es, mas foi na sua obra anterior que mencionou a frase pela primeira vez.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote3anc\" id=\"sdfootnote3sym\">3<\/a>N\u00e3o sou o \u00fanico a ter estas ideias macroecon\u00f3micas her\u00e9ticas. Num artigo muito interessante, George Cooper, um conceituado gestor de fundos e estratega de investimentos, acrescentou um outro efeito que eu n\u00e3o tinha considerado, mas que \u00e9 pertinente tendo em conta a narrativa da \"Greedflation\". Confrontados com custos mais elevados do servi\u00e7o da d\u00edvida <em>\"Os produtores tentam repercutir estes custos mais elevados atrav\u00e9s de pre\u00e7os mais altos e, como a concorr\u00eancia \u00e9 menos intensa, t\u00eam mais facilidade em faz\u00ea-lo.\"<\/em> \u2013 ver: <a href=\"https:\/\/www.equitile.com\/article\/are-central-banks-causing-stagflation\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.equitile.com\/article\/are-central-banks-causing-stagflation<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote4anc\" id=\"sdfootnote4sym\">4<\/a>Devido \u00e0 acumula\u00e7\u00e3o de m\u00e3o de obra.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote5anc\" id=\"sdfootnote5sym\">5<\/a>Qualquer pessoa com alguma familiaridade com sistemas ca\u00f3ticos sabe que \u00e9 imposs\u00edvel utiliz\u00e1-los para prever o que quer que seja, porque alterar as entradas apenas numa pequena quantidade gera resultados radicalmente diferentes, um pouco como as fun\u00e7\u00f5es hash mudam radicalmente quando a entrada \u00e9 apenas ligeiramente alterada.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"#sdfootnote6anc\" id=\"sdfootnote6sym\">6<\/a>Para que conste 60%.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><style type=\"text\/css\">&lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\"> &lt;b>(https:\/\/trakx.io\/crypto-impact\/) &lt;\/b>my take is that bond investors are probably correct in perceiving the risk of a hard landing as increasing but they are being too optimistic in pricing a swift Fed pivot because the hurdle for easing is much higher than they have become accustomed to for the aforementioned reasons. The implicit, but nevertheless inevitable, conclusion is that the Fed is on the cusp of making a policy error. Am I right? Is the bond market right? Is the Fed right? What is the appropriate level for US short-term interest rates? &lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/font>    &lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">Questions, questions, questions.&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/font>   &lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">That got me thinking about the role played by central banks within the modern economy. In many ways they are exceptionally strange entities. Let me explain. &lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/font>    &lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">&lt;b>Invisible Hands&lt;\/b>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/font>   &lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">Most people who work in finance are accustomed with the concept of the invisible hand, a hypothesis conceived by the moral philosopher Adam Smith (economists didn\u2019t exist at the time he wrote Theory Of Moral Sentiments&lt;a class=\"sdfootnoteanc\" name=\"sdfootnote2anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote2sym\">&lt;sup>2&lt;\/sup>&lt;\/a>). The idea, which has been expanded since it was first outlined, is that individuals acting in their own economic self-interest results in the best outcome for society without them either intending or knowing it, ie, it is an unintended positive consequence. &lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/font>    &lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">Although economists have identified several instances of market failures, such as monopolies, negative externalities, inequality etc over the years it is still the foundational argument in support of the free market being the optimal mechanism to \u201c&lt;i>distribute scarce resources in the face of unlimited wants and needs&lt;\/i>\u201d. &lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/font>    &lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">Put within a social context, the invisible hand really is just another way to say that \u201c&lt;i>many heads are better than one&lt;\/i>\u201d. Of course, self-interested individuals can and do make mistakes, but the assumption is when aggregated up these small (relative to the size of the economy) errors tend to cancel each other out, resulting in the optimal solution being magically revealed in the absence of any organized or explicit co-ordination. Certainly, free markets are considered superior to the alternative centralized model where decisions are made by committees. Isn\u2019t that why capitalism succeeded where communism failed?&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/font>   &lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">And yet, in capitalist free-market economies how do we set monetary policy? By committee. A select group of people are hired to work at the central bank and they are tasked with determining what the price of money (the interest rate) should be. Doesn\u2019t that strike you as odd? It does me. &lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/font>    &lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">&lt;b>Good Judgement...&lt;\/b>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/font>   &lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">&lt;span style=\"font-weight: normal\">I think we would all acknowledge that the level of interest rates in an economy has a profound impact upon everyone. It influences economic growth, inflation, unemployment, the cost of government borrowing, the cost of household borrowing (including mortgages - the biggest ticket item most people are likely to purchase), the level of asset prices, the strength of exchange rates\u2026  the list goes on, and on, and on. We are not talking about something inconsequential. Just as we would not trust a group of untrained members of the public to run a nuclear reactor or fly an aeroplane it seems sensible, if not outright prudent given its importance to our economic well-being, to leave monetary policy decisions to the professionals. &lt;\/span>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/font>    &lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">&lt;span style=\"font-weight: normal\">Of course, this only holds if central bankers are competent at determining what is the appropriate level of the interest rate for the economy at any given point in time. The CVs of those appointed to monetary policy committees may suggest competence but the only credible way to judge competence is via their track record. &lt;\/span>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/font>    &lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">&lt;span style=\"font-weight: normal\">Since central banks were made operationally independent \u2013 a process that began in the mid-1990s - most have adopted an explicit inflation target (typically 2%) and this provides a key litmus test by which to objectively measure their competence. &lt;\/span>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/font>    &lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">&lt;span style=\"font-weight: normal\">With the notable exception of Japan, whose economy has been plagued with deflationary forces for decades, since the turn of the century inflation rates in the leading developed economies have been broadly in line with their price stability mandates. (The chart below shows core CPI, which excludes the more volatile food and energy components). That was, of course, until 2022 when the wheels came off and inflation surged to its highest level in decades. &lt;\/span>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/font>    &lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">&lt;b>Core CPI Inflation \u2013 Major Economies&lt;\/b>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/font>   &lt;img name=\"Image5\" width=\"487\" height=\"249\" border=\"0\" align=\"left\" src=\"file:\/\/\/tmp\/lu77867ydv.tmp\/lu77867yer_tmp_71a84a9e02c76446.png\">                               &lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">&lt;span style=\"font-weight: normal\">Source: OECD &lt;\/span>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/font>    &lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">&lt;b>... Or Luck?&lt;\/b>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/font>   &lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">&lt;span style=\"font-weight: normal\">Clearly the luck of central bankers changed, but is it a case of competent central bankers becoming unlucky, or less than competent central bankers having previously been lucky (in the sense that the past two decades happened to be a benign, low volatility, macro landscape for reasons largely unrelated to monetary policy)? Quite an important difference.  &lt;\/span>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/font>    &lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">&lt;span style=\"font-weight: normal\">Answering this question requires rather more than simply looking at how much inflation has deviated from its target rate. Inflation can be buffeted by short-term shocks, of which we have had a couple of doozies in recent years \u2013 notably the Covid pandemic and the Russian invasion of Ukraine. Crushing economic growth as soon as inflation starts overshooting is probably not the most sensible way to conduct monetary policy. Therefore, a better way to gauge the competence of central bankers is by looking at how accurate their inflation forecasts have been over the past two years because this should take into account their tolerance for overshoots. &lt;\/span>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/font>    &lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">&lt;span style=\"font-weight: normal\">Two central banks that produce quite detailed inflation forecasts are the ECB and the BoE, so let\u2019s see how they performed over the  recent past \u2013 see charts below. &lt;\/span>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/font>    &lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">&lt;b>ECB Inflation Forecasts vs. Out-turns&lt;\/b>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/font> &lt;img name=\"Image7\" width=\"427\" height=\"228\" border=\"0\" align=\"left\" src=\"file:\/\/\/tmp\/lu77867ydv.tmp\/lu77867yer_tmp_1d435ec6ac39f879.png\">                             &lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">&lt;span style=\"font-weight: normal\">Source: Financial Times&lt;\/span>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/font>   &lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">&lt;b>BoE Inflation Forecasts vs. Out-turns&lt;\/b>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/font> &lt;img name=\"Image6\" width=\"442\" height=\"251\" border=\"0\" align=\"left\" src=\"file:\/\/\/tmp\/lu77867ydv.tmp\/lu77867yer_tmp_5d1304a29fe45369.png\">                                 &lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">&lt;span style=\"font-weight: normal\">Source: Twitter (@edconwaysky)&lt;\/span>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/font>   &lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">&lt;span style=\"font-weight: normal\">What is readily apparent from these charts is that both central banks significantly and consistently underestimated the extent of the rise in inflation rates. What\u2019s more, these two central banks were not alone. Almost all central banks consistently underestimated how much inflation rates would rise. &lt;\/span>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/font>    &lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">&lt;span style=\"font-weight: normal\">It is tempting to give central bankers the benefit of the doubt as they were dealing with a very unusual and challenging set of circumstances. However, this apparent inability to forecast inflation is not a new feature. Take a look at the ECB\u2019s inflation forecast track record since 2012 \u2013 see chart below. While the magnitude of the errors are relatively smaller (reflective of a more benign macro backdrop) they are nevertheless consistently biased, albeit in the opposite direction. &lt;\/span>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/font>      &lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">&lt;b>ECB Inflation Forecasts vs. Out-turns&lt;\/b>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/font> &lt;img name=\"Image8\" width=\"464\" height=\"288\" border=\"0\" align=\"left\" src=\"file:\/\/\/tmp\/lu77867ydv.tmp\/lu77867yer_tmp_6deb9ba4260988e4.png\">                                   &lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">&lt;span style=\"font-weight: normal\">Source: Twitter &lt;\/span>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/font>    &lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">&lt;span style=\"font-weight: normal\">Judged on the basis of these charts, thank goodness the people sitting on monetary policy committees of central banks are not employed in the airline or nuclear power industries. &lt;\/span>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/font>    &lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">&lt;b>Fool\u2019s Errand&lt;\/b>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/font>   &lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">Interestingly, it is not only central banks who are seemingly unable to forecast inflation. The chart below shows the evolution of consensus private sector forecasts in the US versus actual out-turns. Look familiar? Even large groups of independent individuals \u2013 a closer approximation to the invisible hand in terms of macroeconomic forecasts \u2013 consistently underestimated the jump in inflation rates. &lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/font>    &lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">&lt;b>US Consensus Forecasts vs Out-turns&lt;\/b>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/font> &lt;img name=\"Image2\" width=\"473\" height=\"267\" border=\"0\" align=\"left\" src=\"file:\/\/\/tmp\/lu77867ydv.tmp\/lu77867yer_tmp_637485f7a2194298.png\">                                 &lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">Source: (I can\u2019t quite remember - I pulled it off google - if you recognize the source please let me know and I will amend). &lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/font>    &lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">&lt;span style=\"font-weight: normal\">Forecasting inflation appears to be a fool\u2019s errand. For central bankers this represents a rather serious problem for a subtle and underappreciated reason. Pretty much every financial commentator describes central banks as inflation targetters, but in reality they are no such thing. Due to the long lags which monetary policy impacts an economy \u2013 and hence inflation \u2013  what they actually are is inflation forecast targetters. That is to say, they set the level of interest rates such that their inflation forecasts hit the 2% goal over their forecast time horizon (typically two years). If they can\u2019t accurately forecast inflation, it naturally follows that they can\u2019t be very competent in setting monetary policy either.&lt;\/span>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/font>   &lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">&lt;b>Shaky Foundations &lt;\/b>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/font>    &lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">&lt;span style=\"font-weight: normal\">So how come central banks and financial market participants are bad at forecasting inflation? In my view, it is because the theoretical foundation upon which their forecasts are based is \u2013 let me be generous \u2013 incomplete. &lt;\/span>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/font>    &lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">The prevailing model macroeconomists \u2013 certainly those employed at central banks - use when estimating the effect of interest rates on inflation is via aggregate demand&lt;a class=\"sdfootnoteanc\" name=\"sdfootnote3anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote3sym\">&lt;sup>3&lt;\/sup>&lt;\/a>. According to this framework, higher interest rates force consumers to use a greater proportion of their income on debt servicing, meaning they have less income available to spend. Given consumption constitutes 70% of the economy, this directly translates into weaker economic growth. Furthermore, faced with less demand, companies (eventually&lt;a class=\"sdfootnoteanc\" name=\"sdfootnote4anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote4sym\">&lt;sup>4&lt;\/sup>&lt;\/a>) begin to shed labour pushing up the jobless rate, which serves to further undermine household incomes and hence future consumption. As every student who has ever taken an economics class knows, lower demand results in lower prices, ergo, raising interest rates lowers the inflation rate. &lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/font>    &lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">Notwithstanding the intuitive appeal of this logic, the evidence to support it is somewhat patchy. Underpinning it is the Phillips Curve, which assumes an inverse relationship between inflation and unemployment. During the 1970s this assumed negative relationship blew up when unemployment and inflation simultaneously soared. The theory was patched together by incorporating short-run Phillips curves that were dependent upon the level and volatility of inflation expectations. &lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/font>    &lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">However, in the post Great Recession period the relationship broke down again. In a blog past last year (&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/font>&lt;a class=\"western\" href=\"https:\/\/johnhcochrane.blogspot.com\/2022\/06\/the-phillips-curve.html\">https:\/\/johnhcochrane.blogspot.com\/2022\/06\/the-phillips-curve.html&lt;\/a>&lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">) John Cochrane \u2013 a theoretical economist who is a proponent of the fiscal theory of the price level that I have referenced in several earlier research notes \u2013  pointed out that between 2007-2019 the Phillips curve became flat only to become almost vertical during the pandemic. Such instability makes the Phillips curve about as useful as a chocolate teapot when it comes to using it as the basis to set the appropriate level of interest rates. &lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/font>    &lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">In a more recent blog post (&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/font>&lt;a class=\"western\" href=\"https:\/\/johnhcochrane.blogspot.com\/2023\/04\/how-do-interest-rates-lower-inflation.html\">https:\/\/johnhcochrane.blogspot.com\/2023\/04\/how-do-interest-rates-lower-inflation.html&lt;\/a>&lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">) John more formally discusses the relationship between interest rates and inflation where, after running through a few Greek filled equations, he concludes: &lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/font>    &lt;font color=\"#000000\">\u201c&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">&lt;i>The statement that we have easy simple well understood textbook models, that capture the standard intuition -- higher nominal rates with sticky prices mean higher real rates, those lower output and lower inflation -- is simply not true. The standard model behaves very differently than you think it does. It's amazing how after 30 years of playing with these simple equations, verbal intuition and the equations remain so far apart.&lt;\/i>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/font>   &lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">&lt;i>In this very standard new-Keynesian model, higher interest rates without a concurrent fiscal tightening raise inflation, immediately and persistently.\u201d&lt;\/i>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/font>   &lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">&lt;span style=\"font-style: normal\">Higher interest rates and higher inflation? WTF. That was not in the plan.&lt;\/span>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/font>   &lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">&lt;span style=\"font-style: normal\">&lt;b>Macro Relativity &lt;\/b>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/font>    &lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">&lt;span style=\"font-style: normal\">In my opinion, o&lt;\/span>ne critical deficiency with the way macroeconomists think about the relationship between inflation and interest rates, undermining the policymaking competence of central banks, is they fail to fully consider the impact higher interest rates have on the supply-side of the economy. &lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/font>    &lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">Higher interest rates raise the cost of capital to firms, reducing their incentives to investment in new production or economic capacity (aggregate supply in economic speak). Again, as every student who has ever taken an economics class knows, less supply results in higher prices, ergo raising interest rates raises the inflation rate!&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/font>   &lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">Looking solely at the impact of interest rates on aggregate demand is insufficient. It is the relative impact interest rates changes have on aggregate demand and aggregate supply in the economy that determines how inflation moves. If the damping effect from rising interest rates on aggregate demand is greater than the damping effect on aggregate supply inflation rates will fall, if it is less inflation will rise. The relationship between interest rates and inflation is way more complex than we are generally led to believe. &lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/font>    &lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">My concern at the present juncture is after such a prolonged period of very low nominal interest rates, many firms have business models that have become heavily reliant on cheap financing and in the face of sustained higher interest rates many may go out of business (not unlike the three US banks that have already failed this year). If correct, it means the damping effect on aggregate supply from higher interest rates would be considerable, meaning inflation could very easily prove to be much more durable than those simply looking at the aggregate demand effect. &lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/font>    &lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">&lt;b>So What? &lt;\/b>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/font>    &lt;span style=\"font-variant: normal\">&lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;span style=\"text-decoration: none\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">&lt;span style=\"font-style: normal\">&lt;span style=\"font-weight: normal\">Okay, so as interesting as all this is, what has it got to do with crypto, which is the focal point of these research notes? Quite a lot actually. &lt;\/span>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/span>    &lt;span style=\"font-variant: normal\">&lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;span style=\"text-decoration: none\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span style=\"font-style: normal\">&lt;span style=\"font-weight: normal\">One of the biggest criticisms from mainstream economists about crypto, specifically limited or finite supply cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin, is &lt;\/span>&lt;\/span>&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">&lt;span style=\"font-style: normal\">&lt;span style=\"font-weight: normal\">their supply rigidity makes them unsuitable as a form of money. The argument rests on the belief that central banks require the flexibility that comes from having freely-issuable fiat money in order to implement countercyclical policies and smooth out the economic bumps in the road that inevitably occur because the global economy is a highly dynamic, non-linear, near chaotic (in the scientific sense) system&lt;a class=\"sdfootnoteanc\" name=\"sdfootnote5anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote5sym\">&lt;sup>5&lt;\/sup>&lt;\/a>.  &lt;\/span>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/span>    &lt;span style=\"font-variant: normal\">&lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;span style=\"text-decoration: none\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">&lt;span style=\"font-style: normal\">&lt;span style=\"font-weight: normal\">I would have no problem with this conclusion if central banks were able to demonstrate a solid understanding of how their monetary policy actions impact the economy. But judged on the basis of their inflation forecasting track record it appears they don\u2019t even have the basics down pat. In the aforementioned blog post (see footnote 3), George Copper concludes with the following statement\u2026&lt;\/span>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/span>   &lt;span style=\"font-variant: normal\">&lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;span style=\"text-decoration: none\">\u201c&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">&lt;i>&lt;span style=\"font-weight: normal\">An interesting experiment would be to set central bank base rates to say 3% and then to send our monetary policy committees to the seaside for a decade or two. The economy may perform better without an active monetary policy.\u201d&lt;\/span>&lt;\/i>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/span>   &lt;span style=\"font-variant: normal\">&lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;span style=\"text-decoration: none\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">&lt;span style=\"font-style: normal\">&lt;span style=\"font-weight: normal\">I would go one step further and say in that case why not just do away with fiat money entirely. Prior to Bitcoin\u2019s release it would be impossible to have money that was not issued and controlled by a centralized entity, such as a central bank, because of the problem of double spends. That requirement has now been obliterated. Blockchain technology, which in Bitcoin\u2019s case has been battle-tested for more than 14 years, allows us to issue decentralized money in a digital form (the form that the vast majority of payments are made in). &lt;\/span>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/span>    &lt;span style=\"font-variant: normal\">&lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;span style=\"text-decoration: none\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">&lt;span style=\"font-style: normal\">&lt;span style=\"font-weight: normal\">Fans of the fiat system argue that having a fixed\/limited money supply will result in greater economic volatility (booms and busts) and that it is also almost certainly deflationary, which they worry will undermine long-term economic growth prospects. &lt;\/span>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/span>    &lt;span style=\"font-variant: normal\">&lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;span style=\"text-decoration: none\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">&lt;span style=\"font-style: normal\">&lt;span style=\"font-weight: normal\">On the former point I agree, restricting the ability of central banks to run countercyclical policy would probably increase short-term booms and busts relative to what we have experienced over recent decades. I say probably because as outlined above, we \u2013 and by we I include central bankers -  still don\u2019t appear to have a good handle on how inflation (the primary focal point of central bankers) and interest rates (the primary policy tool of central bankers) interact, so it is far from obvious that this will be the case. &lt;\/span>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/span>    &lt;span style=\"font-variant: normal\">&lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;span style=\"text-decoration: none\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">&lt;span style=\"font-style: normal\">&lt;span style=\"font-weight: normal\">Moreover, when one takes a step back and looks at the long-run macro trends, it is far from obvious that the current fiscal and monetary frameworks have delivered stability. Yes real GDP growth and inflation rates have been relatively stable over recent decades, but look at what it has taken to ensure that outcome. Government debt-to-GDP ratios have risen to near record peacetime highs and central banks have balance sheets that are far larger than historic norms (exceeding national economic output in some cases &lt;\/span>&lt;b>(https:\/\/trakx.io\/fed-aggressive-rate-hiking\/)&lt;\/b>&lt;span style=\"font-weight: normal\">). &lt;\/span>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/span>&lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">C&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/font>&lt;span style=\"font-variant: normal\">&lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;span style=\"text-decoration: none\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">&lt;span style=\"font-style: normal\">&lt;span style=\"font-weight: normal\">an we really be sure we aren\u2019t simply storing up much greater longer-term volatility?&lt;\/span>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/span>   &lt;span style=\"font-variant: normal\">&lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;span style=\"text-decoration: none\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">&lt;span style=\"font-style: normal\">&lt;span style=\"font-weight: normal\">Perhaps it would be better to have higher frequency, but smaller in magnitude, boom-and-bust cycles that mitigates the risk of accumulating larger macro imbalances whose inevitable correction (economic gravity cannot be defied indefinitely) could have potentially disastrous consequences. For those that still disagree I will just say this: come back to me when debt\/GDP ratios are back down to levels that the Europeans considered prudent enough to include in the Maastricht criteria&lt;a class=\"sdfootnoteanc\" name=\"sdfootnote6anc\" href=\"#sdfootnote6sym\">&lt;sup>6&lt;\/sup>&lt;\/a> and then we can talk. &lt;\/span>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/span>    &lt;span style=\"font-variant: normal\">&lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;span style=\"text-decoration: none\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">&lt;span style=\"font-style: normal\">&lt;span style=\"font-weight: normal\">On the deflationary point, I also agree. Having finite-supply money would exert downward pressure on prices because increased productivity would lead to an increase in the supply of goods relative to the supply of money, but how is that a bad thing? Falling prices simply means an increase in the real standard of living. To me that sounds like a good thing. &lt;\/span>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/span>    &lt;span style=\"font-variant: normal\">&lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;span style=\"text-decoration: none\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">&lt;span style=\"font-style: normal\">&lt;span style=\"font-weight: normal\">It would only be objectionable if consistently falling prices prompted people to continue to put off expenditure in anticipation of even lower prices in the future leading to a deflationary spiral. I have come across this argument on many occasions and my response is always this: Have you bought a laptop or pretty much any tech product over the past five years? Of course you have, and that is despite their prices having been on a consistent downward trajectory for decades. As I mentioned earlier, people have &lt;\/span>&lt;\/span>&lt;i>&lt;span style=\"font-weight: normal\">unlimited wants and needs&lt;\/span>&lt;\/i>&lt;span style=\"font-style: normal\">&lt;span style=\"font-weight: normal\"> and this impetus will always prove to be the dominant force.&lt;\/span>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/span>   &lt;span style=\"font-variant: normal\">&lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;span style=\"text-decoration: none\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">&lt;span style=\"font-style: normal\">&lt;span style=\"font-weight: normal\">Deflation would, of course, also mean that because interest rates would be unable to go negative the real value of debt would increase. But, again, is that so bad? If people were aware that there was no prospect of being given a get-out-of-jail free card in the form of negative real interest rates, perhaps they would be more cautious about borrowing money in the first place and we would not get into situations as we presently are where debt levels are very high but without a clear plan as to how they can be corrected (absent of course the central banks being compelled to hit the button on the printing press). &lt;\/span>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/span>    &lt;span style=\"font-variant: normal\">&lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;span style=\"text-decoration: none\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">&lt;span style=\"font-style: normal\">&lt;b>Co-existence &lt;\/b>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/span>    &lt;span style=\"font-variant: normal\">&lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;span style=\"text-decoration: none\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span style=\"font-style: normal\">&lt;span style=\"font-weight: normal\">Will we ever get to see a world where money is freed &lt;\/span>&lt;\/span>&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">&lt;span style=\"font-style: normal\">&lt;span style=\"font-weight: normal\">from the hands of central banks? Probably not. Controlling the money supply is a very powerful tool and governments, who are the ultimate boss of central banks no matter how independent they like to think they are, like and crave power more than anything else. But, the beauty of cryptocurrencies is they can\u2019t stop you or anyone else owning and using them to make payments if you so wish. It is beyond their mandate. More likely the two will co-exist. When I look at how the size of government and central bank balance sheets have expanded over recent decades, I know which one of the two will better satisfy the store-of-value prerequisite for money and it surely ain\u2019t fiat. &lt;\/span>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/span>    &lt;span style=\"font-variant: normal\">&lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;span style=\"text-decoration: none\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span style=\"font-style: normal\">&lt;span style=\"font-weight: normal\">Until next time. &lt;\/span>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/span> &lt;p class=\"sdfootnote-western\">&lt;a class=\"sdfootnotesym-western\" name=\"sdfootnote1sym\" href=\"#sdfootnote1anc\">1&lt;\/a>By year-end US interest rate futures are pricing in 50bp of easing&lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 10pt\" size=\"2\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">&lt;span style=\"text-decoration: none\"> \u2013 see &lt;a class=\"western\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cmegroup.com\/markets\/interest-rates\/cme-fedwatch-tool.html\">https:\/\/www.cmegroup.com\/markets\/interest-rates\/cme-fedwatch-tool.html&lt;\/a> &lt;\/span>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/font> &lt;\/p> &lt;p class=\"sdfootnote-western\">&lt;a class=\"sdfootnotesym-western\" name=\"sdfootnote2sym\" href=\"#sdfootnote2anc\">2&lt;\/a>&lt;font style=\"font-size: 10pt\" size=\"2\">Adam Smith is more well-known for his book &lt;font style=\"font-size: 10pt\" size=\"2\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">The Wealth Of Nations but it was his earlier work where he first mentioned the phrase. &lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/font> &lt;\/p> &lt;p class=\"sdfootnote-western\">&lt;a class=\"sdfootnotesym-western\" name=\"sdfootnote3sym\" href=\"#sdfootnote3anc\">3&lt;\/a>I am not alone in thinking such heretical macroeconomic thoughts. In &lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 10pt\" size=\"2\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">&lt;span style=\"text-decoration: none\">a&lt;\/span>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/font> &lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 10pt\" size=\"2\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">&lt;span style=\"text-decoration: none\">very interesting &lt;\/span>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/font>article George Cooper, a respected fund manager and investment strategist,  added a further effect that I hadn\u2019t considered but which is pertinent given the  \u201cGreedflation\u201d narrative. Faced with higher debt service costs &lt;i>\u201cproducers attempt to pass on these higher costs through higher prices and, as competition is less intense, find it easier to do so.\u201d&lt;\/i> -  see: &lt;a class=\"western\" href=\"https:\/\/www.equitile.com\/article\/are-central-banks-causing-stagflation\">https:\/\/www.equitile.com\/article\/are-central-banks-causing-stagflation&lt;\/a>&lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 12pt\" size=\"3\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\"> &lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/font> &lt;\/p> &lt;p class=\"sdfootnote-western\">&lt;a class=\"sdfootnotesym-western\" name=\"sdfootnote4sym\" href=\"#sdfootnote4anc\">4&lt;\/a>Due to labour hoarding.  &lt;\/p> &lt;p class=\"sdfootnote-western\">&lt;a class=\"sdfootnotesym-western\" name=\"sdfootnote5sym\" href=\"#sdfootnote5anc\">5&lt;\/a>Anyone with any familiarity with chaotic systems knows it is impossible &lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 10pt\" size=\"2\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">&lt;span style=\"text-decoration: none\">to use them to predict anything because changing the inputs by only a tiny amount generates radically different outcomes, a bit like hash functions radically change when the input is only slightly altered. &lt;\/span>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/font> &lt;\/p> &lt;p class=\"sdfootnote-western\">&lt;a class=\"sdfootnotesym-western\" name=\"sdfootnote6sym\" href=\"#sdfootnote6anc\">6&lt;\/a>&lt;font color=\"#000000\">&lt;font style=\"font-size: 10pt\" size=\"2\">&lt;span lang=\"en-GB\">&lt;span style=\"text-decoration: none\">For the record 60%. &lt;\/span>&lt;\/span>&lt;\/font>&lt;\/font> &lt;\/p> <\/style><\/p>","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Os investidores prestam muita aten\u00e7\u00e3o \u00e0s palavras e a\u00e7\u00f5es dos bancos centrais, mas poucos questionam o valor da sua contribui\u00e7\u00e3o para a sociedade; talvez seja altura de o fazermos. <\/p>","protected":false},"author":7,"featured_media":1623,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"_themeisle_gutenberg_block_has_review":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[8],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-1619","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-research"],"acf":[],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/trakx.io\/pt\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/1619","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/trakx.io\/pt\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/trakx.io\/pt\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/trakx.io\/pt\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/7"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/trakx.io\/pt\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=1619"}],"version-history":[{"count":9,"href":"https:\/\/trakx.io\/pt\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/1619\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":1636,"href":"https:\/\/trakx.io\/pt\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/1619\/revisions\/1636"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/trakx.io\/pt\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/1623"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/trakx.io\/pt\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=1619"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/trakx.io\/pt\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=1619"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/trakx.io\/pt\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=1619"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}